Parental Skills and Academic Competences in School Children: The Mediator Role of Executive Functions

Abstract The role of parenting in the development of children's learning constitutes, at present, part of the discussion in the psychoeducational field. Although parental competences (PC) and executive functions (EF) have been investigated by psychology and neuropsychology, their relationship with academic competences remains to be fully studied. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the effect of PC perceived by parents on behavioral EF and performance-based measures of reading and mathematical competences in children. We worked with 131 school children of both sexes, between 9 and 11 years old, and their respective parents. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and structural equation model (SEM) were used. The results indicate that parental skills from the parents' perspective have a significant effect on EF, reading, and mathematical skills. However, the best fit model indicates that EFs mediate the relationship between parenting skills and reading and math skills.

Resumen El rol parental en el desarrollo del aprendizaje de los niños constituye, en el presente, una parte de la discusión en el campo psicoeducativo. Aunque las competencias parentales (PC) y las funciones ejecutivas (EF) han sido investigadas por la psicología y la neuropsicología, su relación con las competencias académicas permanece abierta para ser estudiada a profundidad. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar el efecto de los PC percibidos por los padres en EF comportamentales y las mediciones basadas en el desempeño de las competencias lectoras y matemáticas en niños. Trabajamos con 131 niños y niñas de colegio, entre 9 y 11 años, y sus padres. Se hizo uso del Análisis Multivarial de Variación (MANOVA) y el modelo de ecuación estructural (SEM). Los resultados indican que las habilidades parentales desde la perspectiva de los padres poseen un efecto significativo en las EF, la lectura y las habilidades matemáticas. De forma que los modelos mejor ajustados indican que las EFs median la relación entre las habilidades parentales, lectoras y matemáticas.

Adaptación y validación argentina de la Cross Cultural Children Trust Beliefs Scale / Argentinean Adaptation and Validation of the Cross-Cultural Children Trust Beliefs Scale

Resumen El estudio de la confianza interpersonal es crucial para el desarrollo psicosocial humano. Se ha observado que, durante la niñez, favorece el comportamiento moral y prosocial, los vínculos de amistad, la competencia social, la experiencia de emociones positivas y el rendimiento académico, entre otros aspectos. El presente trabajo tuvo por objetivo adaptar y validar la Cross Cultural Children Trust Beliefs Scale (CCCTBS), a fin de poder evaluar este constructo en población argentina. La muestra incluyó 348 niños (51.2 % mujeres; 48.8 % varones), de entre 8 y 12 años de edad (m = 10.58; DE = 1.31), quienes completaron la CCCTBS y una escala de apego. Se consiguió una versión conceptual y semánticamente equivalente a la original, con buenas propiedades psicométricas. La escala argentina conserva el mismo número de ítems y replica el modelo operacional de partida, constituido por tres bases principales de la confianza: fiabilidad (α = .76; ω = .80), confianza emocional (α = .72; ω = .78) y honestidad (α = .78; ω = .83). Las puntuaciones de la CCCTBS correlacionaron positiva y significativamente con la medida de apego seguro, lo que aporta evidencias de su validez nomológica.

Abstract The study of interpersonal trust is crucial for human psychological development. It has been observed that it enhances moral and prosocial behavior during childhood, as well as friendship bonds, social competence, experience of positive emotions and academic performance, among others. This research aimed to adapt and validate the Cross-Cultural Children Trust Beliefs Scale (CCCTBS), to assess this construct in the Argentine population. The sample included 348 children (51.2 % female; 48.8 % male) aged 8 to 12 years (m = 10.58; SD = 1.31), who completed the CCCTBS and an attachment scale. A version, conceptually and semantically equivalent to the original was obtained, with good psychometric properties. The Argentine scale retains the same number of items and replicates the starting operational model, consisting of three main bases of trust: reliability (α = .76; ω = .80), emotional trust (α = .72; ω = .78) and honesty (α = .78; ω = .83). The CCCTBS scores correlated positively and significantly with the secure attachment measure, providing evidence of its nomological validity.

Programa de fortalecimiento parental en contextos de vulnerabilidad social: Una propuesta desde el ámbito escolar / Program of parental strengthening in contexts of social vulnerability: A proposal from the school environment

El trabajo que se informa destaca el rol relevante de la familia y del ejercicio adecuado de la parentalidad para el desarrollo humano. Dado que las competencias parentales estarían relacionadas con el contexto social, se describen las características de las familias en vulnerabilidad social, teniendo en cuenta los riesgos psicosociales a los que muchas veces están expuestas, las consideraciones culturales de lo que significa ser buenos padres y las propias experiencias de los progenitores o cuidadores en sus familias de origen. Se revisan diversas modalidades de programas de intervención familiar y parental, destacando la importancia del diseño, implementación y evaluación de estos programas en contextos de vulnerabilidad social. En este marco, y considerando que en Argentina existe un escaso desarrollo de programas de apoyo a las familias socialmente vulnerables, se presenta una propuesta de intervención aplicable en el ámbito escolar y dirigida a fortalecer las competencias parentales. El programa propuesto, basado en el enfoque de la parentalidad positiva, integra elementos de los modelos de intervención educativo y comunitario, ya que se implementa en forma grupal, mediante encuentros expositivo-participativos y en coordinación con la escuela a la que asisten los hijos de los beneficiarios. Como conclusión y en función de la experiencia obtenida por las interventoras y la observada en las madres participantes, se presenta una reflexión sobre las contribuciones de la intervención propuesta y los desafíos pendientes para futuras aplicaciones del programa.

This study stresses the significant role of the family and a proper parenting performance for human development. Parenting in itself is very complex, since it demands a balanced combination of several essential factors such as affection, communication, discipline, and the autonomy granted to children. Given the fact that parental skills would be related to a specific social context, a description of the characteristics of families in situations of social vulnerability is provided. Likewise, it is noteworthy that parenting development would depend on those cultural considerations implicated in the concept of being good parents, and the parents or caregivers’ own experiences of upbringing, temperament and resilience. Subsequently, the main modalities of family intervention programs are reviewed, highlighting the importance of design, implementation and evaluation of the former in contexts of social vulnerability. Within this frame work, and considering that in Argentine there are very few programs supporting families in social vulnerability, the main aim of this research is to present an intervention proposal to strengthen parenting skills applicable in the school setting. The proposed program, which is based in the approach of positive parenting, integrates elements from educational and community intervention models, since it is performed in groups, by means of participative and expositive meetings and in coordination with the school attended by the children of the project participants. The proposed intervention was based on two basic areas: (a) direct intervention for parents: the promotion of parenting skills (i.e., attachment, parental empathy, parenting style, positive communication and support networks) and (b) indirect intervention for children: training parents in strategies to promote children’s development of socio-emotional resources (e.g., positive emotions, prosocial behavior, etc.). The intervention was carried out in a school within a context of social vulnerability in the province of Entre Ríos (Argentina). The organization of the meetings was conducted by an interdisciplinary team (i.e., psychologists and educational psychologists). The topics addressed were agreed with the participants based on their interests and needs; a total amount of 30 meetings of 60 to 90 minutes each were carried out. The themes were as follows: parental and child self-esteem, appropriate expression of affection, positive communication and conflict resolution, positive emotions, the strengthening of cognitive resources, prosocial behavior, social skills, family, parental and child resilience, social support networks to families and family-school relationships. The main approach techniques used were: (a) information exposure, (b) peers' feedback and co-reflection, (c) modeling of attitudes and alternative behaviors, (d) task assignments and proposals for action, and (e) interviews after workshops. The research findings are related to those found by other intervention programs made with parents and caregivers in other countries. These preliminary results show that parenting skills, the type of relationship and even the attachment with the children could be modified through the implementation of programs of parental strengthening. Furthermore, the results showed that the program could also help to improve family-school relationships. In some cases, the intervention implemented aroused the interest of the participants in the schooling situation of their children, and at the same time it improved the communication among parents, teachers, and the people in charge of the school. The exploratory results of this proposal of intervention clearly show the need to support and implement these specific kinds of programs, which aim to strengthen the resources of parenting skills and encourage a healthy development of children. Based on the experience got from interventionists and participating mothers, a final consideration about the contributions of the proposed intervention and the possible future challenges observed after the implementation of the program is presented.

Percepción de la creatividad en niños, padres y pares: efectos en la producción creativa / Perception of Creativity in Children, Parents and Peers: Effects on Children's Creative Production / Percepção da criatividade em crianças, pais e pares: efeitos na produção criativa

Objetivo. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar la percepción de la creatividad en niños, padres y pares, y el efecto de estas percepciones sobre la producción creativa de los niños en actividades de papel y lápiz. Método. Participaron 359 alumnos de 9 a 13 años de diferentes escuelas y colegios de la provincia de Entre Ríos de la República Argentina. Para conocer la producción creativa, los niños completaron la prueba de figuras del Test de Pensamiento Creativo de Torrance Forma B. Para estudiar la valoración de los pares, padres y niños sobre la creatividad se aplicó el Sociograma "Compañero creativo", la Escala de Personalidad Creadora (versión heteroevaluación a los padres o tutores) y la versión autoevaluación a los niños de 11 a 13 años. Resultados. Los resultados mostraron que tanto la percepción parental (F (2, 356) = 6.55, p = 0.002), así como la evaluación que realizan los pares (F (2, 356) = 4.90, p = 0.008) sobre la creatividad mejoran la producción creativa del niño en las tareas de papel y lápiz. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en la producción creativa según la evaluación del niño sobre su propia creatividad. Conclusión. Los datos muestran la importancia cardinal de los factores contextuales, particularmente, la percepción de los padres y de los pares en los procesos de formación del yo en cuanto a las competencias y habilidades que son necesarias para realizar una actividad creadora.

Objective. The present study aimed at assessing the perception of creativity in children, parents and peers, as well as the effect of these perceptions on the child's creative output in paper-and-pencil activities. Method. The study involved 359 students aged 9-13 years from different schools and colleges of the province of Entre Ríos, Argentina. To know the creative production, children completed the Figural Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT; Torrance, Ball y Safter, 1992), Form B. To study the valuation of peers, parents and the own child on creativity, the Sociogram "Creative peer" for all children, the Creative Personality Scale (CPS; 2004, in its hetero-evaluation version for parents or guardians) and the Self-evaluation version for children aged 1113 years were administered. Results. The results showed that both parental perception (F (2, 356) = 6.55, p = 0.002) and peers' evaluation (F (2, 356) = 4.90, p = 0.008) on creativity improve the child's creative production in paper-and-pencil activities. No significant differences were found in the creative production according to the child's self-perception of his/her creativity. Conclusion. Data demonstrate the fundamental importance of contextual factors, mainly the perception of parents and peers in the process of the formation of the self, in terms of competencies and skills that are necessary to carry out a creative task.

Escopo. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a percepção da criatividade em crianças, pais e pares, e o efeito de estas percepções sobre a produção criativa das crianças em atividade de papel e lápis. Metodologia. Participaram 359 alunos de 9 a 13 anos de idade de diferentes escolas e colégios da província de Entre Ríos da República Argentina. Para conhecer a produção criativa, as crianças completaram a prova de figuras do Test de Pensamento Criativo de Torrence Forma B. Para estudar a valoração dos pares, pais e crianças sobre criatividade foi aplicado o Sociograma "Companheiro criativo", a Escala de Personalidade Criadora (versão heteroavaliação aos pais ou tutores) e a versão auto-avaliação às crianças de 11 a 13 anos de idade. Resultados. Os resultados mostraram que tanto a percepção parental (F(2,356) = 6.55, p = 0.002), assim como a avalição que foi feita pelos pares (F(2,356) = 4.90, p= 0.008) sobre a criatividade melhoram a produção criativa da criança em tarefas de papel e lápis. Não foram achadas diferenças significativas na produção criativa segundo a avalição da criança sobre sua própria criatividade. Conclusão. Os dados mostram a importância cardinal dos fatores contextuais, particularmente, a percepção dos pais e dos pares nos processos de formação do Eu em quanto às competências e habilidades que são necessárias para fazer uma atividade criadora.

Children’s Gratitude: Implication of Contextual and Demographic Variables in Argentina / La gratitud de los niños: Implicancia de variables contextuales y demográficas en población argentina / A gratidão das crianças: Implicações de variáveis contextuais e demográficas na Argentina

This article explores the motives for gratitude expressed by children, taking into account contextual and demographic variables. The sample consisted of 249 participants aged between 8 and 10 years from Argentina, of which 127 were middle SES children (Group 1) and 122 were low SES children (Group 2). The study used a free response technique and Cramér’s V tests were performed to analyze whether the responses were associated with SES, gender and age. The most prominent motive for gratitude in Group 1 was related to having a family. Children from the lower SES group demonstrated gratitude for being able to have material objects and the basic elements necessary for survival, among which food was emphasized. Girls focused their gratitude on loving relationships, whereas boys mentioned material objects, borrowed objects, as well as autonomy granted by their parents. The motives for gratitude were also found to be significantly associated with age.

Este artículo explora los motivos de agradecimiento que expresan los niños, teniendo en cuenta variables demográficas y contextuales. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 249 participantes argentinos de 8 a 10 años de edad (127 niños de estrato socioeconómico medio -Grupo 1-, y 122 de estrato socioeconómico bajo -Grupo 2). Se utilizó la técnica de respuestas libres y se realizaron pruebas V de Cramer para analizar si los motivos de gratitud se asociaban al estrato socioeconómico, al género y la edad. El Grupo 1 agradece principalmente por la familia, mientras que el Grupo 2 se focaliza en los bienes materiales y elementos básicos para la supervivencia, como el alimento. Las niñas agradecen mayormente por las relaciones afectivas. Los varones mencionan los objetos materiales, los préstamos y la indulgencia parental. Los motivos de gratitud también estuvieron significativamente asociados a la edad.

Este artigo explora os motivos de agradecimento mais comuns expressados pelas crianças, considerando as variáveis demográficas e contextuais. A amostra foi composta por 249 participantes da Argentina, de 8 a 10 anos de idade (127 crianças de nível socioeconómico médio -Grupo 1-, e 122 de nível socioeconômico baixo -Grupo 2-). Aplicou-se a técnica de resposta livre e Testes de Cramer V foram realizados para analisar se as respostas estavam associadas ao nível socioeconômico, sexo e idade. O grupo 1 agradece principalmente pela família, em quanto o grupo 2 focaliza os bens materiais e elementos básicos para a sobrevivência. A maioria das meninas agradece pelas relações afetivas, em quanto os meninos mencionam os objetos materiais, os empréstimos e a indulgência dos pais. Os motivos de gratidão também estiveram significativamente associados à idade.

Apego percibido y conducta prosocial en adolescentes / Perceived attachment and prosocial behavior in adolescents

Teniendo en cuenta el rol fundamental del apego parental en el desarrollo de diferentes recursos socio-emocionales, el objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar si la percepción del apego parental, se relaciona específicamente con la conducta prosocial adolescente. Método: se trabajó con una muestra no probabilística intencional de 285 adolescentes (216 mujeres y 69 varones) de entre 14 y 18 años (M = 15,68; DE = 1,14), de Córdoba, Argentina. Previa autorización de los padres y consentimiento informado, se les administró la versión traducida y validada en Argentina del Cuestionario de Apego Parental de Kenny (1987) y la versión traducida y validada para adolescentes argentinos del Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM) de Carlo & Randall (2002). Se realizó un Análisis Multivariado de Variancia (MANOVA), cuyos resultados indicaron diferencias significativas en el perfil de prosocialidad en función del apego seguro/positivo (F de Hotelling (8.556) = 3.33; p = .001). Los resultados de los análisis univariados correspondientes a cada una de las dimensiones de la conducta prosocial evaluada, se discuten en función de los desarrollos teóricos y empíricos encontrados hasta el momento, encontrando una consistencia general entre los mismos

Considering the fundamental role of parental attachment in the development of different socio-emotional resources, the aim of this research was to study if the perception of parental attachment is specifically related to adolescent's prosocial behavior. Method: We worked with an intentional non-probabilistic sample of 285 adolescents (216 females and 69 males) aged between 14 and 18 years (M = 15.68, SD = 1.14), of Cordoba, Argentina. After obtaining informed consent from their parents, the translated and validated in Argentina version of Parental Attachment Questionnaire of Kenny (1987) and the translated and validated version for Argentinean adolescents of the Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM) of Carlo & Randall (2002) were administered. A Multivariate Variance (MANOVA) analysis was performed, the results indicated significant differences in the profile of prosocial behavior in function of secure/positive attachment (F de Hotelling (8.56) = 3.33; p = .001). The results of univariate analysis corresponding to each one of the prosocial dimensions evaluated are discussed in terms of theoretical and empirical developments found until now, finding an overall consistency between them.

Importancia de la Parentalidad para el Desarrollo Cognitivo Infantil: una Revisión Teórica / The importance of parenthood for the child’s cognitive development: a theoretical revision

La influencia del contexto social y familiar en el desarrollo socioemocional y cognitivo del niño es innegable. El objetivo de este trabajo es destacar el rol activo de la parentalidad en el desarrollo cognitivo infantil. Para esto, se revisan diversos antecedentes en el área con particular énfasis en los estudios que analizan el efecto de las diferentes prácticas parentales sobre el funcionamiento ejecutivo del niño. Se espera que la integración de estos aportes favorezca el desarrollo de estrategias de intervención dirigidas a promover y fortalecer prácticas parentales adecuadas, para repercutir de manera positiva en el desarrollo cognitivo de los hijos.

The influence of the social and family context in the child's socioemotional and cognitive development is undeniable. The objective of this paper is to underline the active role of parenthood in the child's cognitive development. To this end, several antecedents in the area are revised with a particular emphasis on the studies that analyze the effect of the different parental practices on the child's executive functioning. It is expected that the integration of these contributions favor the development of intervention strategies aimed at promoting and strengthening adequate parental practices, so as to have an impact on the children's cognitive development in a positive manner.

Fortalecimientoeemocional de las familias en siuación de pobreza: una propuestta de intervención desde el contexto sccolar / Emotinal strengtthening in the family: intervention from the school context

Las secuelas psicológicas de los patrones relacionales caracterizados por carencias afectivas y mal manejo interaccional entre los miembros de una familia, pueden inhibir u obstruir el intento de los miembros por alcanzar su pleno potencial para un desarrollo psicosocial saludable. En este sentido, el fortalecimiento emocional de las familias se tornaría una condición fundamental para superar estos patrones disfuncionales. El propósito de este trabajo consiste en exponer por qué la educación y la estimulación emocional pueden resultar particularmente útiles en los contextos de riesgo psicosocial y presentar algunas estrategias para abordar dicha tarea desde el ámbito escolar. Esta propuesta se centra particularmente en el fortalecimiento de los recursos emocionales de los padres o cuidadores primarios, logrando impactar directamente sobre el desarrollo emocional de los niños.

The psychological consequences from relational styles characterized by lack of affection and interactional mismanagement between family members can inhibit or block the attempt by members to achieve their full potential for healthy psychosocial development. In this context, emotional strengthening families would become a key condition for overcoming these dysfunctional patterns. The aim of this work is to show why psychoeducation and emotional stimulation can be particularly useful in the context of psychosocial risk due to poverty and present some strategies to approach such goal from the school environment. This approach is mainly focused on the strengthening of emotional resources in parents and primary caregivers to achieve a direct impact on the children's emotional development.

Percepción de clima social familiar y actitudes ante situaciones de agravio en la adolescencia tardía / The family social enviroment perception and attitudes on offensive circumstances in later adolescence

El propósito de este trabajo fue evaluar la posible incidencia que ejerce la percepción del clima social familiar sobre las actitudes ante situaciones de agravio en otros ámbitos. Con este fin, fueron estudiados a través de un diseño de investigación ex post facto, 140 sujetos de ambos sexos de 18 a 24 años de edad, residentes en las provincias de Entre Ríos y Mendoza (República Argentina). Los instrumentos empleados fueron la adaptación de la Escala de Clima Social Familiar (FES) de Fernández Ballesteros (1995), el Cuestionario de Actitudes ante Situaciones de Agravio (Moreno & Pereyra, 2000) y un cuestionario demográfico para recabar variables como edad, sexo y estado civil, entre otras. Los da tos fueron analizados con Análisis de Variancia Múltiple (MANOVA). Los resultados del estudio indican que se encontraron diferencias significativas con respecto a las actitudes Venganza y Perdón entre los grupos que presentaron diferente clima familiar. Los que percibieron un clima menos favorable mostraron más predisposición a la Venganza y menos tendencia al Perdón ante la ofensa, en los ámbitos de trabajo, amistad, padres y Dios. Las actitudes ante el agravio más agresivas se vieron afectadas por la percepción negativa del clima familiar. Las actitudes prosociales se relacionaron con un ambiente más favorable. Los resultados obtenidos parecen estar de acuerdo con el modelo complementario, que plantea que las relaciones familiares proporcionan un aprendizaje de valores y habilidades básicas para la interacción con los demás en otros ámbitos.

The purpose of this work was to evaluate the possible impact that the family social environment perception has on one's attitude when facing offensive situations in other environments. To this end, through an ex post facto investigation, 140 subjects of both sexes between the ages of 18 and 24, homogeneous by gender (70 men and 70 women) were studied. These subjects were residents in provinces of Entre Ríos and Mendoza (República Argentina). Throughout its existence, the individual is heavily influenced by their environment. This assertion has been supported by authors in the fields of Psychology and Educational Psychology (Bowbly, Winnicot, and others). Also, how to perceive the environment influences how the individual behavior in that environment. Then accordingly, the objective of this research was to determine whether a better social environment for families (greater cohesion and expressiveness and less conflict) is associat ed with a more prosocial attitude to the offense, from a psychological point of view, in the late adolescence. The evaluation methods applied were: The Family Social Environment Scale from Moos, R., Moos, B., and Trickett a dapted by Fernández Ballesteros (1995). To evaluate the family environment of the participants used the Dimension Relationship: describes the relationships between family members, aspects of development that are most important in it and its basic structure. The Attitudes on Offensive Circumstances Questionnaire (Moreno & Pereyra, 2000) and a demographic survey. In analyzing the data, Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted. The results of the study showed significant differences in consideration of attitudes towards Revenge and Forgiveness in the groups with different familiar environment. Those who perceived a less favorable atmosphere demonstrated a greater predisposition towards Revenge and less towards Pardon when faced with offensive situations in their work environment, friendships, with their parents and with God. The attitudes facing more aggressive offenses were seen to be affected by the negative perception of the familiar atmosphere. The prosocial attitudes were connected to a more favorable atmosphere. The subjects of the sample that perceived less cohesion and expressiveness were more predisposed to aggressive answers and less to the forgiveness before the damage that those who were perceiving more cohesion at home. As well as those who were perceived less expressiveness showed to have more predisposition to the revenge before the offense that those who perceived more expressiveness in the family. The results showed in the areas of relationships observed, that the late adolescents with better family environment stretch to attitudes on the offense in the relations with the parents, God, the friends and his mate of job. The young of the less positive family environment showed predisposition to answers, such of more aggressive type, as the revenge before the offense in the relations with the parents, God and mate of job and a trend to the rancor in the relationship with friends. Some skills can be learned in other areas of relationships and, in turn, encourage them to a better family atmosphere, that is, more cohesive, more expressiveness and less conflict within the home. However, family relationships have a longer period and learning that makes them often have more impact than that acquired from other areas of relationship (Martínez & Fuertes, 1999). Finally, the results found in the present study seem to be more in accordance with the complementary model of Gold and Yanof (1985, cited in Martínez, 1997), that poses that the familiar relations provide a learning of values and basic skills for the interaction with others and no so much with the compensate model as which the relations with the equal would see intensified when the familiar environment and relations are poor (Fuligni & Eccles, 1993, cited in Martínez, 1997; Martínez, 1997).